From conflict to conservation: Understanding public attitudes of hunters and conservationists toward Carpathian lynx (Lynx lynx carpathicus) in Slovakia

Public perception of large carnivores is heterogeneous and contrasting attitudes of various stakeholder groups may create barriers to effective management. The most prominent disparities occur between hunters and conservationists. While dissatisfaction among hunters may lead to increased instances of illegal killing as a form of protest, conservationists' disapproval can impact public opinion, potentially eroding trust in management policy. We conducted a survey across Slovakia (n = 1071) to understand how different stakeholders perceive current management of the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) and to identify key commonalities and potential conflicts of interests. We found broad consensus among stakeholders regarding high intrinsic value of lynx in Slovak nature and low potential for conflict regarding livestock damages caused by lynx. Majority of respondents, including hunters (63%), foresters (63%), and farmers (62%), supported the legal protection of lynx in Slovakia. Our study also demonstrates widespread support of the Slovak public (75%–88%) for reintroduction programs using Slovak lynx population as a resource. However, the majority of respondents (65%–75%) supported using primarily orphans and rehabilitated lynx for these programs. The greatest polarization between hunters and conservationists was observed in issues related to lynx population status and lynx heaving an impact on roe deer population. Approximately half of hunters believed lynx population over the past 20 years increased and that lynx poses a threat to the roe deer population, with over a third advocating for legal lynx hunting. These attitudes likely lead to the relatively widespread illegal killing on over ~50% of the lynx distribution range in Slovakia. Our data suggest that increasing public awareness of lynx, implementing adaptive science-based management, and involving hunters in citizen science and management decisions might be the most effective way to develop policies balancing conservation goals with the socio-cultural context of human-large carnivore coexistence.