Cancer Vaccines: Mechanisms, Clinical Applications, Challenges, and Future Directions in Precision Medicine.

Cancer poses a major health burden worldwide, necessitating the development of novel therapeutic approaches. Personalized cancer vaccines represent a promising form of immunotherapy that enhances the ability of the immune system to recognize and destroy tumor cells through tumor-associated and cancer-specific antigens. This review categorizes cancer vaccines into preventive, therapeutic, and personalized vaccines, discussing their mechanisms, clinical applications, and current FDA-approved examples, such as Sip-uleucel-T and HPV vaccines. We highlight the recent advances in RNA-based vaccines, viral vectors, and nanotechnology, along with the synergistic role of cancer vaccines and immune checkpoint inhibitors in improving therapeutic efficacy. Overcoming ethical, regulatory, and technological barriers through global collaboration is essential for maximizing vaccine efficacy and enhancing patient outcomes. This review highlights the pivotal role of personalized vaccines in advancing precision medicine and reshaping cancer treatment paradigms.