Comparative life cycle assessment of lead-free halide perovskite composites/polymer for piezoelectric energy harvesting.

Lead zirconate titanate (PZT) is one of the most widely used piezoelectric materials due to its excellent performance. However, its lead content raises serious environmental and health concerns, prompting the search for more sustainable alternatives. In this work, we explore whether a lead-free composite based on the halide perovskite FASnI₃ embedded in a polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) matrix could serve as a viable substitute for PZT in piezoelectric energy harvesting applications. To assess this potential, we conduct a comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) of both materials in thin-film device configurations, following a cradle-to-grave approach. The analysis includes the environmental impacts of raw material extraction, manufacturing, potential energy recovery during use, end-of-life treatments, and accidental release scenarios. The results show that PZT-based devices have consistently higher environmental impacts across all life cycle stages, mainly due to the high energy requirements for their synthesis and thin-film deposition, as well as the use of lead. In contrast, the FASnI₃-PVDF composite benefits from low-temperature processing and the absence of lead, resulting in significantly lower impacts during manufacturing and the use phase. This study offers a first comparative insight into the environmental trade-offs of substituting PZT with halide perovskite-based composites, contributing to the identification of more sustainable piezoelectric solutions.