Shifting from traditional to intensive carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) production systems: Exploring major phytosanitary issues and emerging challenges

The carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua L.) holds significant ecological and economic value in the Mediterranean basin. Traditionally cultivated in low-input, mixed agroecosystems, carob orchards maintain high genetic diversity and ecological plasticity. Known for its resilience and minimal input requirements, carob has historically been grown mainly as livestock feed. In the face of increasing environmental stresses and rising global demand, understanding the carob tree's ecological role can help develop resilient agricultural methods, restore ecosystems, and ensure the long-term sustainability of its cultivation despite reduced genetic diversity, climate change and increasing pest and disease pressures.

Intensive practices—such as monocropping, high-density planting, and excessive irrigation—disrupt the ecological equilibrium, that naturally suppressed pest and pathogen pressure. These practices create homogeneous environments conducive to the spread of pathogens and pest proliferation, challenging the tree's natural resilience.

This review highlights major fungal, bacterial, and insect threats to carob systems, examining their biology and epidemiology. It also projects how the transition from traditional to intensive production systems increases the crop's susceptibility to pests and diseases.

We emphasize the need for integrated management approaches combining sustainable practices with agricultural technology to maintain carob productivity and health. Potential strategies—such as selecting resistant cultivars, diversifying orchard varieties, optimizing cultural practices, and using biological control—could offer promising solutions to the challenges associated with the transition toward intensified cultivation. Our prospective analysis underscores the critical need of integrating agroecological principles with modern agricultural practices to ensure long-term sustainability of carob cultivation in a rapidly evolving agricultural context.