Adaptation and mitigation of outdoor heat stress and building energy consumption during a heat wave in Nicosia, Cyprus

Cities in the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East region face rising temperatures and intensifying heatwaves that are amplified by the urban heat island effect. These challenges pose significant threats to human health, agriculture, and the water–energy nexus, emphasizing the need for in-depth analysis and effective mitigation strategies at the urban scale. To address this need, we model the effects of seven interventions over 19 days, from July 23rd to August 10th, 2021, during a heatwave in Nicosia, Cyprus. We assess three key outcomes using the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model coupled with the multilayer Building Energy Parameterization/Building Energy Model (BEP/BEM) scheme: 2m air temperature, outdoor heat stress, and air-conditioning energy use. Our results demonstrate that urban trees are the most effective single intervention, reducing energy consumption by approximately 46% and decreasing heat stress-degree hours by 20–25 h over the analyzed period. The combined implementation of cool roofs and urban trees proved to be the most effective overall, reducing energy consumption by over 50% and lowering 2m air temperatures by up to 1.2 °C during the day. A promising adaptive mitigation strategy emerged through the integration of photovoltaic panels and urban trees, which reduced heat stress while generating energy that significantly contributes to cooling demands. The efficacy of these interventions varied with urban geometry, with maximum benefits in areas characterized by medium building heights and densities. These findings offer guidance for developing urban climate resilience strategies in semi-arid regions, underscoring the importance of location-specific application of heat adaptation and mitigation measures.