2D material-based electrochemical sensors for early diabetes detection: A review of progress and prospects

Diabetes mellitus represents a significant and escalating global health challenge, characterized by alarming prevalence rates and substantial economic burden. Early detection is paramount for effective management and prevention of debilitating long-term complications, yet conventional diagnostic methods face limitations in terms of accuracy, convenience, cost, and ability to capture dynamic glycemic changes. Electrochemical biosensors offer a promising alternative, providing advantages such as high sensitivity, rapid response, portability, and potential for miniaturization. The advent of two-dimensional (2D) materials, including graphene, transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs), and MXenes, has revolutionized the field of electrochemical sensing. Their unique physicochemical properties—including high electrical conductivity for rapid electron transfer, large surface area for enhanced analyte interaction, tunable surface functionalization for bioreceptor immobilization, and mechanical flexibility for wearable integration—enable substantial improvements in sensitivity, selectivity, and operational stability of electrochemical sensors. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the progress in utilizing 2D material-enhanced electrochemical sensors for the early detection of key diabetes-related biomarkers, including glucose, glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), insulin, glucagon, and ketones. We discuss the fundamental properties of these 2D materials and the mechanisms by which they improve sensor sensitivity, selectivity, and stability. Recent advancements in sensor design, fabrication strategies, and performance metrics (limit of detection, linear range, response time) are critically examined, along with validation studies in relevant biological matrices. Despite considerable progress, challenges remain concerning material synthesis reproducibility, long-term stability in biological environments, susceptibility to biofouling and interference, and pathways towards cost-effective, scalable manufacturing and clinical translation. Future prospects, including the exploration of novel 2D materials and heterostructures, advanced functionalization techniques, multiplexed detection platforms, and integration into wearable and point-of-care systems, are discussed. Addressing the current hurdles will be crucial for realizing the full potential of 2D material-based electrochemical sensors in transforming diabetes diagnostics and management.