Assessing PAH contamination in Brazilian urban soils: Eco-friendly microextraction for source identification and risk evaluation

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are considered persistent organic pollutants that have a significant impact on the environment and human health. This study investigates PAH contamination in soils across various land use areas in Divinópolis, Brazil, using a novel analytical approach that integrates direct immersion solid-phase microextraction (DI-SPME) with a hydrophilic microporous cartridge (HMCart) and comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC × GC/FID) for enhanced detection and quantification. The HMCart-DI-SPME method combined with GC × GC/FID demonstrated outstanding analytical performance, achieving low detection limits (1.0–6.8 μg kg⁻¹), high recoveries (93.67–109.67 %), and good precision (6.16–15.76 % RSD). The ΣPAH ranged from 141.77 to 1133.07 μg kg⁻¹, with the highest levels observed in industrial areas, surpassing 800 μg kg⁻¹. Benzo[a]pyrene equivalent (BAPeq) values ranged from 63.95 μg kg-¹ in most samples to 691.79 and 814.40 μg kg⁻¹ in industrial areas, exceeding the safety threshold of 210 μg kg⁻¹. Source apportionment analysis revealed a predominance of petrogenic PAHs in commercial and residential areas, whereas industrial areas showed a strong pyrogenic signature, primarily related to fossil fuel combustion and textile industry activities. Isomeric ratios, multivariate analysis and Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) model confirmed the spatial variation of PAH sources and highlighted the anthropogenic influence on contamination levels. The results emphasize the importance of continuous monitoring of PAH pollution in urban-industrial environments and validate the HMCart approach as a sustainable and effective alternative for forensic environmental analysis.