Comprehensive insights into Triclosan: Environmental sources, plant uptake, metabolism, phytotoxicity, and food safety risks

Triclosan (TCS), a widely used antimicrobial agent, has become an emerging environmental contaminant due to its extensive application in pharmaceutical and personal care products. Its persistence, high lipophilicity, and bioaccumulative nature contribute to its widespread presence in various environmental compartments, particularly aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. This review explores the eco-toxicological impacts of TCS on plant systems, emphasizing its sources, bioaccumulation, and adverse effects on plant physiology, including oxidative stress, impaired photosynthesis, and biochemical disruptions. The ability of TCS to accumulate in agricultural soils via wastewater irrigation and biosolid application raises significant concerns about food security and ecosystem stability. Additionally, the review discusses the transformation and degradation of TCS in plant systems, highlighting its metabolic pathways and interactions with plant-associated microbiomes. Given its documented endocrine-disrupting properties, phytotoxicity, potential role in antimicrobial resistance, and adverse cascading effects on food chains, biodiversity, and ecosystem, the review underscores the urgent need for improved wastewater treatment protocols and sustainable remediation strategies for TCS.