Bridging the conservation implementation gap in marine protected areas from management assessment to improvement actions

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) represent critical conservation tools, yet significant knowledge gaps exist regarding the effectiveness of management evaluation frameworks and their translation into actionable outcomes. This systematic review analyzed 281 peer-reviewed publications (1994–2023) to examine MPA management effectiveness evaluation (MEE) approaches. Only 63 studies (22.4 %) employed MEE frameworks, with most excluded for focusing solely on biophysical indicators (36.7 % of excluded studies), literature synthesis (17.0 %), or misaligned methodologies (46.3 %). Among MEE studies, 46.0 % applied existing methods, 42.9 % adapted frameworks, and 11.1 % developed novel approaches. A critical gap emerged in stakeholder engagement: while 82.5 % of MEE studies incorporated participatory elements, 63.5 % limited stakeholder involvement to evaluation phases only. Only 12.7 % documented follow-up actions with continued stakeholder participation, and 6.3 % shared results without specifying subsequent activities. These findings reveal a disconnect between stakeholder-engaged evaluation and participatory implementation. The review identifies two critical enabling factors for improving MPA outcomes: sustained stakeholder participation and sustainable financing, particularly through Environmental, social, and governance (ESG)-aligned investment. Case studies from Brazil, Honduras, France, and Northwest Africa demonstrate how participatory governance and financial diversification enhance long-term effectiveness. The findings call for a shift from evaluation-focused models to action-oriented frameworks that embed adaptive, inclusive, and financially resilient management.