Liver organoids: From 3D printing to biomedical applications

The liver is an immune organ, especially an immune tolerance organ. The critical shortage of donor organs and disease models for the treatment of end-stage liver failure underscores the urgent need for the generation of liver organoids from human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). Notably, significant advancements have been made in the study of liver organoids over the past decade. The construction of liver organoids has transitioned from single cell type to multicellular models, and from two-dimensional to three-dimensional cultures. Here we provide the progress surrounding the different liver organoids culture techniques from 3D printing to organ-on-chip, as well as focuses on the present and future applications of liver organoids, and then to present challenges and perspectives ahead for further advancement.