Lithium production in the United States: Socio-technical review of sites, environmental impacts, and social acceptance

The low-carbon transition has motivated a global exploration and development surge for lithium (Li). The United States has only one Li mine and commercial refinery, and one Li-byproduct producer in 2024. Projects from exploration to production are classified in four production types: hard-rock mining of Li pegmatites, soft-rock mining of Li clays and sediments, and solution mining of Li brines through evaporative concentration or direct lithium extraction (DLE). This contribution reviews all major U.S. lithium projects to total known (mid 2024) reserves of 0.71 Mt and resources of 27.8 Mt (million metric tonnes contained lithium). Upon this foundation, the political ecology of Li development is analyzed, focused on interconnected environmental impacts and social perceptions. Lithium pegmatite deposits (12 % of reserves; 2 % of resources) have seen open pit mining proposals raise concerns over water quality and landscape disruption. From Li clays and sediments (71 % of reserves; 74 % of resources) controversies have developed over Tribal cultural resources and potential impacts on desert playa ecosystems. Salar-type brines (10 % of reserves; 1 % of resources) supply the sole Li mine through evaporative concentration. High water usage in this method has led to research and development of DLE methods that may enable lithium recovery from geothermal brines and oilfield brines (11 % and 6 % of resources respectively). A summary conceptual diagram of the lithium landscape, highlights interconnected global, domestic, and site-specific factors necessary for responsible U.S. lithium production. This work illuminates how resource availability, technology, and social dynamics converge to shape the outcomes of lithium development and U.S. supply security.