Municipal solid waste generation and management dynamics under changing governance in Nepal

Nepal's transition from a unitary to a federal government system has had a notable impact on municipal service delivery, including solid waste management. However, limited empirical evidence exists regarding how this transition has affected waste generation and management practices at the local level. This study analyzes changes in solid waste generation, composition, and management practices in Ghorahi Sub-Metropolitan City, Nepal, between 2013 and 2023. The study employed a mixed-methods approach, combining household surveys, waste sampling, and field observations. Households were selected using systematic random sampling, and waste generated over 24-hour was collected, segregated and analyzed from each household. Additionally, field observations of local waste management facilities were conducted to supplement the data and provide contextual understanding. Results shows that the average household waste generation increased by 72.8% (371.94 to 643.05 g/day) between 2013 and 2023 while the waste composition shifted, with organic waste decreasing from 77% to 66% and plastics increasing from 12% to 25%. Municipal waste collection efficiency improved from 92% to 98%, while exclusion rates dropped from 5.7% to 2%. Post-federalization governance led to the improved transparency in waste management but reduced ward-level support. Despite improvements in waste collection efficiency and transparency, challenges persist in coordination among multi-level government tiers. The significant rise in waste generation and changing composition highlights the need for improved institutional capacity, better integration across government levels, and targeted interventions for waste reduction and environmental protection in Nepal's evolving federal system.