Metal-organic frameworks based electrochemical sensors for emerging pharmaceutical contaminants in the aquatic environment

The widespread presence of pharmaceutical products (PP) in the environment is becoming a global issue, posing a threat to aquatic ecosystems and consequently to human health. This emphasizes the need for effective monitoring tools, such as electrochemical (bio)sensors, comprising advanced (nano)materials to enhance sensitivity and/or selectivity. Particularly, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are valuable due to their high porosity, large surface area, and tunable properties. Innovative strategies have been achieved towards MOF-based sensor technology, despite persistent challenges with electron conductivity and water stability. This review discusses the latest developments in MOF-based electrochemical (bio)sensors for detecting PP in the aquatic environment, focusing on the unique attributes of MOFs and strategies to overcome their limitations. Data are described according to the different types of MOFs (ZIF, UiO, MIL, HKUST, other less common), used for detecting 27 different PP. All these studies were published within the last 5 years, highlighting the growing significance of MOFs in sensing applications and the ongoing environmental challenges posed by PP contamination. The reported (bio)sensors proved to be suitable for the sensitive and accurate determination of PP (from fg/L to µg/L) in aquatic ecosystems, with low environmental footprint, especially those based on ZIF-MOF. MOFs are promising materials for the development of (bio)sensors. However, their potential can be fully realized only by moving (bio)sensors beyond the conventional use of traditional transducers and emphasizing advancements in miniaturization, portability, and sustainability. These progresses are essential for positioning MOFs-based electrochemical (bio)sensors as preferred analytical tools in environmental analysis and as viable market solutions.