Within-group variability in communication style among caregivers and its relation to the language abilities of Wolof-learning toddlers in Senegal.

Studies of caregiver-child interactions in Western societies show that face-to-face communication, including verbal engagement and gaze, support child language outcomes. Ethnographic studies in agrarian non-Western communities, including in Africa, show that these face-to-face behaviors with children occur infrequently, with parents relying more on nonverbal and physical communication. However, observed cross-cultural differences in parenting styles often overlook important within-group variabilities in caregiver-child interactions, leading to the assumption that caregivers in particular cultural groups uniformly use similar parenting styles. This study examines interindividual variability in parenting in rural Senegal and how this variability relates to children's language outcomes. Results yielded two clusters of caregivers: Caregivers in Cluster 1 had lower education levels and showed moderately high scores for face-to-face communication and some nonverbal communication. In contrast, caregivers in Cluster 2 had higher education levels and significantly higher scores in face-to-face communication, combined with lower scores in nonverbal communication. Physical touch scores were similar across clusters. Children of caregivers who used more face-to-face behaviors, including gaze and verbal engagement, had higher vocabulary and language milestones than children of caregivers who used less face-to-face behaviors. Correlational analysis indicated that the differences in child language outcomes were related to the frequency of mutual gaze, conversational turn-taking and verbal object stimulation. This suggests that face-to-face behaviors may be less frequent in non-Western cultures compared to Western cultures but can also support language skills in African settings. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).