Roadmap to Nanomedical Applications: Nanotoxicology and In Vitro Guidelines for Lanthanide-Doped Luminescence Nanothermometers

Lanthanide-based luminescence nanothermometry has demonstrated unprecedented advantages in the development of nanotheranostic platforms for potential medical applications, yet despite exponential research progress and great enthusiasm across various related disciplines, a swift bench-to-bedside translation seems to be still out of reach. This is predominantly related to fundamental research issues at the preclinical stage, such as complex nanomaterials design, incomplete optimization, fragmented characterization, and insufficient validation of nanothermometer performance in physiological environments. The main impediments currently are important biophysicochemical issues that must be addressed comprehensively, first and foremost in available in vitro systems, before going on to in vivo investigations. This review outlines a critical perspective, as well as a route of suggestions and underexplored aspects to address and significantly minimize the existing translational gap.