Conductive and piezoelectric biomaterials: a comprehensive review of load-bearing soft tissue repair

Load-bearing soft tissues, such as tendons, cartilage, and ligaments, withstand substantial mechanical stress and are susceptible to injury, particularly in athletes. The increasing prevalence of these injuries poses a significant challenge, exacerbated by the limitations of traditional treatments, which often lead to lengthy recovery periods and a high risk of recurrence. In recent years, researchers have harnessed the electrical properties of conductive and piezoelectric biomaterials to address challenges in load-bearing soft tissue engineering. These materials facilitate electrical stimulation and/or enable the monitoring of biomechanical properties during motion, with the aim of advancing load-bearing soft tissue regeneration and repair. This review explores the roles and mechanisms of electrical cues in load-bearing soft tissues, highlighting the development and application of two primary types of biomaterials—conductive and piezoelectric materials—in electro-biomechanical sensing and stimulation therapies for load-bearing soft tissue engineering.