Implantable and wearable triboelectric nanogenerators as a novel platform for biomedical antibacterial applications

Bacterial infections and antibiotic resistance pose escalating threats to global public health. Consequently, there is a critical need for novel antibacterial strategies and materials that circumvent bacterial resistance. Among emerging solutions, triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) have attracted significant attention as a promising physical antibacterial technology due to their efficient self-powered capability, flexible design, and broad applicability. Despite significant progress in applying TENG-based electrical stimulation (ES) in antibacterial applications, challenges persist in fully understanding its antibacterial mechanisms and enhancing its efficiency. This review comprehensively presents the latest advancements in implantable and wearable TENGs for biomedical antibacterial applications. It examines the antibacterial mechanisms of TENG-based ES, summarizes current strategies for enhancing the antibacterial performance of TENGs through integration with other technologies, and explores their applications in wound healing, deep tissue and implant-associated infections, wearable electronic devices, and personal protective equipment. Finally, the review highlights the key challenges in biomedical antibacterial applications and discusses potential solutions, offering valuable insights for future development and innovation.