Factors influencing stakeholder interaction patterns in Forest Landscape Restoration: The role of institutional and organizational proximity

Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR) relies on stakeholder engagement and participatory governance. However, understanding stakeholder dynamics remains limited. To address this, we applied social network analysis to assess how institutional and organizational proximity influence network formation within Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR) initiatives in Ethiopia and Madagascar. We used Net-Map to collect relational data from 202 interconnected stakeholders in Ethiopia and 85 in Madagascar. The igraph R package was used for network visualization and descriptive analysis, while the Exponential Random Graph Model (ERGM) was applied to identify factors influencing network formation. Our study shows imbalances in stakeholder participation between the two countries: Ethiopia's network is led by knowledge hubs, while Madagascar's is dominated by international NGOs with substantial funding. ERGM results reveal Ethiopia’s network is more inclusive, whereas Madagascar’s is concentrated among NGOs and government entities. Institutional proximity significantly influences network formation, while organizational proximity does not. Both countries have centralized networks, with stakeholders connecting to influential actors to build bridging trust. Additionally, high collaboration levels are observed, as stakeholders with shared partners often form connections, which fosters bonding trust. We conclude that forest landscape restoration relies on two key factors: academic knowledge and funding. Our findings highlight the need for more inclusive FLR networks, as current structures are dominated by research institutions and international NGOs, limiting local community participation. While institutional proximity shapes FLR efforts, balancing centralization with inclusivity is crucial for fostering collaboration, resilience, and long-term sustainability.