Mapping operational and embodied emissions in relation to household and ownership profiles with bottom-up building stock analysis: The case of Vaud, Switzerland

We conducted a bottom-up, spatially explicit building stock analysis to examine the social and spatial heterogeneity of operational and embodied emissions of residential buildings in Canton Vaud, Switzerland. Variations emerged between locations, household profiles and ownership types. Urban households exhibited lower embodied emissions per resident, but higher annual operational emissions (1500–1900 kg CO₂/resident), compared to rural households, which showed greater overall variation (1200–2200 kg CO₂/resident). Ownership patterns were less geographically distinct but stratified by type: mixed-ownership buildings exhibited the highest embodied energy, largest material stock and the most modern buildings, whereas community-owned buildings showed the widest variation in annual operational emissions (1500–2300 kg CO₂/resident). Our findings suggest that tailoring emission-reduction interventions to specific social and physical housing contexts would enhance the materials-energy nexus in the built environment. We discuss avenues for reducing energy losses, closing material loops, and incorporating sufficiency into building stock management.