Invisible chains: Tracking urban carbon-economic inequality in China

Carbon-economic inequality poses a significant challenge to sustainable urban development and equitable emissions reduction. This study combines an Environmentally Extended Multi-Regional Input-Output (EE-MRIO) model with the Emissions Trade Terms (ETT) index, revealing the dynamic characteristics of carbon-economic inequality in Chinese cities from 2012 to 2017 from a multi-dimensional perspective. Subsequently, an extended STIRPAT model is employed to identify the driving factors of this inequality. The results reveal significant unequal relationships in the transfers of embodied carbon emissions and value added across urban trade chains. Spatially, there is a general trend of trade-embodied carbon emissions shifting from north to south and from inland to coastal regions. A comprehensive evaluation shows dynamic changes in urban roles, with the highest percentage of cities performing as carbon losers and economic winners. Further analysis indicates that disparities in carbon-economic inequality between cities continued to widen, with the ratio of the highest to the lowest ETT value increasing from 56.15 in 2012 to 124.35 in 2017. Economic development, population size, urbanization, industrial structure, and energy consumption are critical factors influencing this inequality. This study offers a systematic framework for assessing carbon-economic inequality at the city level and provides valuable insights for developing sustainable urban policies.