Recent advances in biomarkers for cardiovascular diseases and biosensing precisely via modification method of electrochemical biosensor: A Review

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) continue to represent the leading cause of global mortality and disability, highlighting the urgent need for early detection, intervention, and prevention strategies to improve patient outcomes. While significant advancements have been achieved in diagnostic approaches - including clinical risk stratification and biomarker panels - the increasing prevalence of CVDs presents substantial challenges, particularly in the context of accelerating global aging populations. This situation demands the identification and clinical validation of highly sensitive circulating biomarkers that can detect early pathological changes, coupled with the development of precise analytical platforms. Electrochemical biosensors have emerged as critical diagnostic tools for CVDs, offering exceptional advantages such as sub-picomolar sensitivity, multiplexed detection capability, rapid response kinetics, and miniaturization potential. Herein, the biomarkers for cardiovascular disease and the biosensing for them were comprehensively reviewed. Firstly, the highly specific and novel biomarkers closely related to three cardiovascular diseases which can reflect the presence or severity of the disease to a certain extent. Secondly, several common types of electrochemical biosensors and their modification method were emphasized. Finally, we summarized the advantages and disadvantages of each electrochemical biosensor modification method, as well as the development trends in the future, and provided some insights for better application in clinical practice to benefit human health.