Electrochemical nanosensors in therapeutic pharmaceutical monitoring: from drug following to clinical protocols

Therapeutic monitoring (TDM) combines the quantification of drug concentrations in the blood, pharmacological interpretation, and treatment guidance, introducing a valuable tool in precision medicine. However, quantifying drug concentrations requires expensive techniques, specialized laboratories, and trained personnel. A plausible alternative to solve this limitation is quantifying pharmaceutical compounds using nanosensors. This review starts by describing the standard methodology used in TDM to emphasize further how to explore electrochemical nanosensors for this purpose. It points out the advantages of electrochemical nanosensors compared to conventional methodologies based on their analytical features, potential for point-of-care applications, fast response, miniaturization, convenient operation, and portability. The review concludes by summarizing the patented work and discussing important points to consider in developing electrochemical nanosensors in clinical settings, as well as challenges and gaps that must be filled to introduce such new technological innovations in TDM and personalized therapy.