Minimally and non-invasive glucose monitoring: the road toward commercialization

The increasing global prevalence of diabetes has led to significant advancements in glucose monitoring technologies. Since the introduction of enzyme-based glucose biosensors in the 1960s, these devices have evolved to enable real-time and dynamic glucose monitoring, with electrochemical biosensors playing a crucial role. Recent innovations have expanded glucose sensing into non-invasive and minimally invasive methods, utilizing optical, millimeter wave, ultrasound, and bioimpedance techniques to provide user-friendly and painless alternatives. This review examines the current state and future prospects of glucose monitoring technologies, particularly focusing on wearable sensors for in vivo applications. It explores the key mechanisms of electrochemical and alternative sensing methods, highlighting their evolution, adaptability to different biofluids, and integration into multiplexed systems for improved diabetes management. Emerging wearable devices offer continuous and real-time feedback, which is essential for effective glucose regulation. The review also addresses challenges such as biocompatibility, accuracy in fluctuating physiological conditions, and external factors that can affect sensor performance. Furthermore, it analyzes the commercial landscape, from established continuous glucose monitors to next-generation technologies, highlighting opportunities for personalized care. The aim of this review is to guide future research in developing advanced and efficient glucose monitoring solutions tailored to meet patient needs.