Modular, Vascularized Hypertrophic Cartilage Constructs for Bone Tissue Engineering Applications.

Insufficient vascularization is the main barrier to creating engineered bone grafts for treating large and ischemic defects. Modular tissue engineering approaches have promise in this application because of the ability to combine tissue types and localize microenvironmental cues to drive desired cell function. In direct bone formation approaches, it is challenging to maintain sustained osteogenic activity, since vasculogenic cues can inhibit tissue mineralization. This study harnessed the physiological process of endochondral ossification to create multiphase tissues that allowed concomitant mineralization and vessel formation. Mesenchymal stromal cells in pellet culture were differentiated toward a cartilage phenotype, followed by induction to chondrocyte hypertrophy. Hypertrophic pellets (HPs) exhibited increased alkaline phosphatase activity, calcium deposition, and osteogenic gene expression relative to chondrogenic pellets. In addition, HPs secreted and sequestered angiogenic factors, and supported new blood vessel formation by cocultured endothelial cells and undifferentiated stromal cells. Multiphase constructs created by combining HPs and vascularizing microtissues and maintained in an unsupplemented basal culture medium were shown to support robust vascularization and sustained tissue mineralization. These results demonstrate a promising in vitro strategy to produce multiphase-engineered constructs that concomitantly support the generation of mineralized and vascularized tissue in the absence of exogenous osteogenic or vasculogenic medium supplements.