Microplastics in waste management systems: An invisible threat to environmental and public health

The ongoing plastic pollution crisis has significantly increased microplastics (MPs) in waste management systems, posing an invisible yet critical threat to ecosystems and public health. Despite growing research efforts, the application of advanced treatment methods in waste management systems and their tangible effects on human health and other species remain uncertain, particularly in developing countries. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the MPs in solid and liquid wastes of developing and developed nations, estimate the potential risk and address the advanced approaches systematically. This study found that plastic packaging wastes and textile fibers are significant sources of MP pollution in solid and liquid wastes. MPs in solid waste in developing nations are documented to be 3.68 times more MPs than in developed nations in this review. Although developed countries can successfully remove 85-98 % of MPs through wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), advanced treatment facilities remain scarce in developing countries. As a result, the MPs eventually end up in surrounding environmental compartments in developing nations. This study also discovered that human exposure rates to MPs were 3.23 times greater in developing nations than in developed nations. These findings indicate that exposure to MPs and other emerging contaminants may seriously affect human health. As a result, this systematic study focuses on implementing sophisticated treatment systems and MP source reduction measures to achieve sustainable development goals (SDGs) 6 and 11.