Navigating the nuclear tide: A comprehensive review of challenges, opportunities, and advances in managing marine contamination by radioactive contaminants

Since the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant (FDNPP) disaster, which resulted in the widespread release of radionuclides into the marine environment, there have been ongoing concerns about the long-term ecological and human health risks associated with such events. This review investigates the sources, transport mechanisms, and environmental impacts of key radionuclides, including cesium-137, strontium-90, plutonium isotopes, and tritium, which persist in marine ecosystems. The economic consequences of contamination and gaps in enforcement highlight the need for robust regulatory frameworks. Advancements in nuclear wastewater treatment technologies are explored, focusing on adsorption, membrane filtration, bioremediation, phytoremediation, ion exchange, the Advanced Liquid Processing System (ALPS), and hybrid approaches. Adsorption using nanomaterials, mesoporous silica, and waste-based adsorbents demonstrates high radionuclide removal efficiency, while membrane technologies such as reverse osmosis and forward osmosis offer promising solutions, particularly for tritium separation. Hybrid systems integrating adsorption and membrane filtration emerge as the most effective treatment strategies due to their scalability and enhanced radionuclide recovery. A comparative SWOT analysis underscores the advantages and limitations of each technology, emphasizing the need for continued research into real-world applications, predictive modeling, and continuous monitoring. The review also examines advanced modeling techniques, including hydrodynamic simulations and radionuclide diffusion models, to assess contaminant dispersion and bioaccumulation patterns. Additionally, international regulatory frameworks, including guidelines from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and national policies on nuclear wastewater disposal, are analyzed. Case studies from the Haiyang and Pilgrim Nuclear Power Stations provide practical insights into treatment applications and risk mitigation. These findings highlight the urgent need for sustainable nuclear wastewater management through technological innovation, regulatory improvements, and interdisciplinary collaboration. This review serves as a foundation for future research and policy development aimed at minimizing environmental and public health risks associated with radioactive wastewater discharge into marine ecosystems.