Measuring true bootlegging: Conceptualization, scale development and validation

Among the three sub-classes of bootlegging, true bootlegging occurs most frequently in organizations because it is the most covert. However, the definition and measurement of true bootlegging have been rarely explored. This study contributes to the bootlegging literature by distinguishing between the sub-classes of bootlegging and conducting an in-depth investigation of true bootlegging. Drawing on representative definitions from existing literature, we conceptualize true bootlegging. Then, we use three studies to develop and validate a five-dimensional, 17-item True Bootlegging Scale (TBS). The empirical results demonstrate that the TBS exhibits good reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity, and nomological validity. This scale addresses the shortcomings of existing measurement tools and provides a scientific scale for the empirical study of true bootlegging.