Recent update on multi-epitope vaccine development for treating breast cancer

Breast cancer (BC) remains one of the leading causes of cancer-related morbidity and mortality, owing to genetic mutations and various nongenetic factors. Traditional treatments often induce severe side effects and recurrence risk. Recently, immunotherapy has emerged as a promising alternative, offering prolonged survival and improved quality of life. Multi-epitope vaccines have shown promise by inducing strong immune responses through multiple epitopes, targeting various tumor antigens, and minimizing adverse effects. Advancements in genomic and proteomic technologies have enabled the identification of key antigens for targeted vaccine design. Immunoinformatics and reverse vaccinology have improved epitope mapping, allowing the selection of epitopes that prompt robust immune responses. Synthetic peptide vaccines combining multiple antigens, along with potent adjuvants, have demonstrated enhanced immunogenicity and stronger antitumor responses. This review provides an overview of the development of the multi-epitope vaccine for treating BC, identifying over 18 studies from 2019 to 2024: 9 are in the in silico design stage, 4 in preclinical testing, 2 in phase I clinical trials, and 3 in phase II clinical trials. These studies evaluated 28 immunogenic target antigens, showing promising results in efficacy and safety. Continued research and collaboration will accelerate the development of effective cancer immunotherapies.