Insecticide resistance in mosquitoes: molecular mechanisms, management, and alternatives

Insecticides remain a primary tool in mosquito-borne disease control; however, the resistance in mosquito populations poses a significant challenge to the efficacy. Resistance mechanisms, including target sites mutations and increase in metabolic detoxification, have emerged due to wide spread insecticide use. The growing resistance to pyrethroids used in long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) and indoor residual spraying (IRS) necessitates alternative control strategies. Furthermore, synthetic insecticides often negatively impact the environment and nontarget organisms, highlighting the necessity of exploring alternative pest management strategies. Biological control methods utilizing natural predators, pathogens, and parasites of mosquitoes have shown promise as viable alternatives to traditional insecticide approaches.