Environmental-social trade-offs for public goods: A cross-country comparison in Europe

Environmental-social trade-offs are essential but often overlooked. This study addresses the gap by examining citizens' willingness to pay (WTP) for public goods—carbon emissions, biodiversity (environmental indicators), and local employment (social indicator)—in seven European Union regions: northern and southern Spain, France, Hungary, Italy, The Netherlands, and Poland. A hypothetical choice experiment evaluates public perceptions of the environmental-social trade-offs. Results show heterogeneity in how citizens perceive the relative importance of public goods. The main determinants of WTP include age, gender, distance to the innovation site, belief in climate change, trust in government, and environmental awareness. Key determinants contribute differently to the WTP for public goods across Europe. Additionally, heterogeneity across countries regarding trust in government and the New Ecological Paradigm (NEP) score has been found mainly in the social aspect. Considering environmental-social trade-offs in a socially inclusive context is essential for future Common Agriculture Policy reforms.