A review of the occurrence, fate, and transport of SARS‑CoV‑2 in the aqueous environment, with specific reference to groundwater

The SARS-CoV-2 virus has led to the COVID-19 pandemic, creating significant global health challenges. Primarily, the virus spreads through respiratory droplets, however there is also a notable risk of waterborne transmission due to its presence in the feces and swabs of infected individuals. Groundwater, as part of the aqueous environment, is potentially vulnerable to contamination by SARS-CoV-2. Therefore, understanding the occurrence, fate, and transport of the virus in groundwater is essential for managing risks to human health associated with groundwater contamination by SARS-CoV-2. This paper reviews the sources, fate, and transport mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 in groundwater and the subsurface environment. It identifies existing knowledge gaps and offers recommendations for protection groundwater resources. SARS-CoV-2 has been detected in stormwater, sanitary sewer overflows, leaking wastewater pipes, landfill leachates, and non-human animal waste. These possible contamination pathways suggest that stormwater and wastewater may act as environmental reservoirs and transmission routes for SARS-CoV-2. The virus can travel from untreated wastewater, potentially contaminating shallow groundwater systems and subsequently affecting deeper aquifers. The transport of viruses in groundwater is influenced by various physical factors (such as sorption, inactivation, moisture, pH, and temperature), geochemical factors (including suspended solids, organic material, cation and ionic strength), and hydrogeological factors (advection, dispersion, diffusion, porosity, aquifer flow regime, and recharge). This paper proposes the feasibility of using SARS-CoV-2 as a tracer, given appropriate health considerations.