Measuring minds: Understanding the mental states of dairy cattle in different management conditions*

Minimizing negative and promoting positive emotional states are central to animal welfare. Evaluating these states in dairy cattle under farm conditions is challenging yet vital. This review highlights behavioral (e.g., play, body language), physiological (e.g., heart rate variability, infrared thermography), and cognitive (e.g., judgment bias, flexibility) indicators for assessing emotional states. The selected examples highlight the potential effects of different management conditions on the positive or negative emotional state and cognitive functioning of dairy cattle. Advances in automation have opened avenues for continuous assessment of the mental states of dairy cattle on-farm; this will enable adjustments to management practices to meet individual needs and improve animal welfare.