A framework for load frequency regulation in multi-area grid-connected hybrid power systems with plug-in electric vehicles

Due to technological advancements, the rapid expansion of renewable energy in the power sector has led to challenges with operation, security, and management. Reduced grid inertia necessitates maintaining normal operating frequency and lowering tie-line power changes to assure stability and reliability. In this article, a framework for load frequency controller (LFC) that is based on the combinations of traditional controllers is proposed. In this study, the filtered derivative proportional controller cascaded with $\beta$ proportional integral, abbreviated as ${\mathrm{PD}}_F+(\beta +PI)$, is suggested for LFC applications. In addition, the optimization of the proposed controller parameters for two-area power grids is tuned using the grasshopper optimization algorithm (GOA). The contribution of aggregated model for electric vehicles (EVs) is also taken into consideration. The performance of the proposed controller is evaluated with the effectiveness of other controllers like cascaded proportional integral and derivative (PI-PD), $1$ plus proportional integral derivative (1+PID), $1$ plus proportional integral (1+PI), and fractional order proportional integral derivative (FOPID). The proposed GOA optimizer tuned ${\mathrm{PD}}_F+(\beta +PI)$ controller is tested for reliability against variations in load, penetration of renewable energy sources, and parametric uncertainties of the grid for the time integral absolute error (ITAE) objective function. By employing the proposed controller, the system achieves rapid and efficient minimization of the objective function. Thus, the controller is highly suitable for applications requiring quick response and precise performance.