An integrated life cycle cost assessment framework incorporating cost of carbon dioxide equivalent for buildings subjected to natural hazards

The building construction industry is responsible for approximately 39 % of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, quantified using carbon dioxide equivalent (CO₂e). As urbanization and population growth escalate construction demand, sustainable development considerations become crucial. This study presents a novel cradle-to-cradle life cycle cost assessment framework that integrates the three pillars of sustainability: economic, environmental, and social; while accounting for natural hazard-related losses throughout a structure’s design life. The framework quantifies economic (e.g., material and process costs), environmental (e.g., CO₂e) and social (e.g., casualties and injuries) impacts in monetary terms. The framework also provides insights into CO₂e impacts under different future climate scenarios through environmental costs. The framework is demonstrated for four steel frame buildings in India exposed to seismic events as natural hazards. The study finds that initial and operational costs dominate life cycle costs, followed by initial carbon emissions and operational carbon emissions. Further, costs associated with CO₂e account for 30 % to 70 % of total life cycle cost, depending on the future climate scenarios. The findings highlight the need for policies that utilize this framework for evaluating sustainable design and construction among multiple stakeholders such as owners, contractors, architects, engineers, urban planners and policymakers.