Air–water exchange fluxes of phthalates and phenolics xenoestrogens on Xietang River and East Taihu Lake in Suzhou and the potential health risks†

As endocrine disruptors, xenoestrogens are prevalent in inland lakes and are mainly attributed to atmospheric transportation. There is limited research on the air–water exchange of xenoestrogens in inland waters and the consequent health effects. This study investigated the air–water exchange process of selected xenoestrogens and associated health risks in adults by examining water and PM_2.5 samples from the East Taihu Lake and Xietang River in Suzhou. The mean concentration of total xenoestrogens in surface water and PM_2.5 were 40.30 ± 7.19 ng L⁻¹ and 460.13 ± 31.87 ng m⁻³ (East Taihu Lake), 536.69 ± 99.62 ng L⁻¹ and 63.93 ± 3.82 ng m⁻³ (Xietang River), respectively. Utilising a two-film model, the air–water exchange flux was calculated, with BPA exhibiting the most comprehensive range among all xenoestrogens from −8.88 × 10⁹ to −1.01 × 10¹⁰ near East Taihu Lake and −1.32 × 10¹⁰ to −1.13 × 10¹⁰ (ng m⁻² d⁻¹) near Xietang River. Different xenoestrogens displayed various air–water exchange directions. DBP shows the highest dry deposition fluxes of 9373.26 ± 611.59 near East Taihu Lake and 478.97 ± 48.00 (ng m⁻² d⁻¹) near Xietang River. The study also assessed the non-dietary exposure risk of six xenoestrogens in PM_2.5 for adults, concluding that no non-cancer risks were identified, with a hazard index below 1. DEHP concentration is within an acceptable level of carcinogenic risk (incremental lifetime cancer risk <10⁻⁶). Results from this study underscore the importance of developing and implementing xenoestrogen management policies in the Taihu Lake Basin.