Do the relationships among policy stringency, corruption, and public size differ across country groups in the context of green transformation?

This study utilizes fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) to explore the effects of critical economic and environmental factors on carbon intensity in 19 European countries from 1999 to 2020. The findings demonstrate a strong link between high carbon intensity, weak corruption control, and low research and development (R&D) expenditure, implying that corruption may intensify emissions by supporting carbon-heavy practices. Conversely, lower carbon intensity is associated with advanced financial development, suggesting a positive effect on reducing emissions, which contrasts with existing literature. Furthermore, effective corruption control and increased government revenue significantly mitigate carbon emissions by promoting investments in green initiatives. Other effective strategies identified include stringent environmental regulations, elevated environmental taxes, and enhanced R&D investment, all of which facilitate the adoption of carbon-neutral technologies. The results indicate that these structural relationships are statistically significant and affirm the hypothesis that robust corruption control, financial development, and R&D investment are vital for achieving reduced carbon intensity across Europe.