Return governance and diplomacy between Türkiye and Afghanistan

There is growing scholarly and policy interest in understanding how destination and transit countries develop return migration policies and collaborate with origin countries. This study investigates the dynamics, drivers and outcomes of the collaborative process between Turkish and Afghan authorities in governing the return of Afghan migrants. Drawing on the concept of return diplomacy, derived from the broader framework of migration diplomacy—which explores the interplay between cross-border mobility and foreign policymaking—we analyse the bilateral talks and arrangements shaping these returns. Our examination of official documents, news sources, interviews and engagements with key informants reveals that authorities on both sides get involved in return diplomacy by leveraging historical and religious networks, as well as humanitarian diplomacy instruments. The drivers of this process are rooted in the domestic priorities of the Turkish government to manage return flows and the expectations of Afghan authorities and the Taliban for international legitimacy and aid through cooperation. The collaboration reflects a blend of formal and informal relations and practices. The outcomes, however, highlight significant opacity in bilateral negotiations and arrangements. These efforts lack a structured readmission framework and have resulted in record-high coerced returns of Afghan migrants (officially 42,498 in 2022) with minimal monitoring. While not fully representative, this case study provides valuable insights for enhancing theories of migration diplomacy and return governance by underscoring the utility of a decentred approach and emphasis on South-to-South contexts.