Beyond traditional uses: Unveiling the epigenetic, microbiome-modulating, metabolic, and nutraceutical benefits of Salvia officinalis in human and livestock nutrition

Sage (Salvia officinalis), a member of the Lamiaceae family, has a long history of medicinal use for conditions such as diarrhea, rheumatism, ulcers, gout, and inflammation. While its traditional and culinary applications are well documented, recent research highlights its potential as a metabolic modulator, microbiome regulator, epigenetic influencer, and pharmacological agent. However, its full impact on human and livestock nutrition remains underexplored. This review examines the role of sage in functional foods, precision livestock feeding, and drug development, emphasizing its influence on gene expression, gut microbiota, metabolic efficiency, and nutraceutical formulations. By integrating nutrigenomics, microbiome engineering, metabolomic profiling, and pharmacological research, we propose a next-generation framework for utilizing sage to enhance health, resilience, and productivity in both human and veterinary applications.