Urban–rural differences in residents' low-carbon behavioral drive: An empirical study based on an extended theory of planned behavior

While the urgent need to change residents' behaviors to achieve low-carbon societies is widely recognized, it is still unclear how urban and rural differences affect low-carbon behavioral drivers. This study investigated the mental factors of low-carbon behavior by extending the theory of planned behavior (TPB) to develop an integrated framework incorporating ingroup and outgroup norms. The structural equation model and multiple linear regression analyses were subsequently conducted with data from 5763 surveys conducted in Zhejiang, China. The results show that perceived behavioral control and environmental attitudes strongly predict low-carbon behaviors. Furthermore, ingroup and outgroup norms indirectly influence low-carbon behavior by shaping environmental attitudes. Crucially, our findings reveal a significant urban–rural disparity in which norm conflict negatively moderates the attitude–behavior relationship in urban areas but not in rural areas. The findings expand the knowledge about social psychological drivers that influence low-carbon behavior in rural and urban areas and provide further insights into the driving forces and resistance in low-carbon governance.