Exploring the inequality in urban parks’ distribution and their cooling effects from the perspective of urbanization

Urban parks play a crucial role in mitigating urban overheating, but their unequal distribution exacerbates heat inequality. Park cooling effects extend beyond park boundaries, benefiting surrounding residential communities. However, it remains uncertain whether the spatial spillover of park cooling effects can compensate for the unequal distribution of urban parks. This study estimated the park cooling effects in 276 Chinese cities and analyzed the inequality in access to urban parks and their cooling effects across Chinese residential communities from the perspective of urbanization. The results show that: (1) Chinese urban parks provide substantial cooling effects. The average park cooling intensity (PCI) in selected cities is 1.36 °C, with a cooling distance (PCD) of 165 m and a cooling area (PCA) of 879,879 × 10⁴ m², accounting for 52 % of residential community areas. However, 25 % of the cooling areas overlap, and only 12 % of residential communities are covered by cooling areas directly. (2) Observed inequality in Chinese urban parks’ distribution and their cooling effects. Wealthier communities have access to smaller parks with more water bodies, less impervious surfaces, and higher PCI. Inequality exists in both park and cooling areas. However, the significantly lower Gini index of cooling areas compared to park areas suggests that enhancing park cooling effects can help mitigate the inequality in urban parks’ distribution. (3) Inequities in parks’ distribution and cooling effects vary across cities with different levels of urbanization. Chinese cities can be clustered into two types based on the inequality in urban parks and their cooling effects, highlighting the unique challenges faced by cities at different development levels. Cities with lower urbanization rate and GDP lack sufficient per capita park and cooling areas, while more urbanized and economically developed cities face more severe inequity challenges related to inequitable distribution of urban parks and their cooling effects. We recommend increasing park supply, optimizing park spatial distribution, and enhancing cooling effects to address insufficient park resources and their unequal distribution.