The formation of protoplanetary disks through pre-main-sequence Bondi–Hoyle accretion

Protoplanetary disks are traditionally described as finite-mass reservoirs left over by the gravitational collapse of the protostellar core, a view that strongly constrains both disk-evolution and planet-formation models. We propose a different scenario in which protoplanetary disks of pre-main sequence stars are primarily assembled by Bondi–Hoyle accretion from the parent gas cloud. We demonstrate that Bondi–Hoyle accretion can supply not only the mass but also the angular momentum necessary to explain the observed size of protoplanetary disks. Additionally, we predict how the specific angular momentum of protoplanetary disks scales with stellar mass. Our conclusions are based on an analytical derivation of the scaling of the angular momentum in turbulent flows, which we confirmed with a numerical simulation of supersonic turbulence. A key outcome of our analysis is the recognition that density fluctuations in supersonic turbulence—previously overlooked in studies of cloud and core rotation—lead to a significant increase in angular momentum at disk-forming scales. This revised understanding of disk formation and evolution alleviates several long-standing observational discrepancies and compels substantial revisions to current models of disk and planet formation.