Revolutionizing Bone Regeneration: Vascularized Bone Tissue Engineering with Advanced 3D Printing Technology

The repair and functional reconstruction of bone defects resulting from trauma, surgical resection, degenerative diseases, and congenital malformations are major clinical challenges. Bone tissue engineering has significant advantages in the treatment of severe bone defects. Vascularized bone repair scaffolds are gradually attracting attention and development because of their excellent biomimetic properties and efficient repair efficiency. Three-dimensional (3D) printing technology, which can be used to fabricate structures at different scales using a wide range of materials, has been used in the production of vascularized bone repair scaffolds. This review discusses the research progress in 3D printing for vascularized bone repair scaffolds. Angiogenesis-osteogenesis coupling in the bone regeneration process is first introduced, followed by a summary of the 3D printing technologies, printing inks, and bioactive factors used to fabricate vascularized bone repair scaffolds. Notably, this review focuses on structural design strategies for vascularized bone repair scaffolds. Finally, the application of vascularized bone repair scaffolds in medicine, as well as challenges and outlooks for future development, are described.