Plant-made trained immunity-based vaccines: Beyond one approach

Plant-made vaccines and trained immunity-based vaccines (TIbV or TRAIMbV) represent two strategies for enhancing immunity against diseases. Plants provide an effective and cost-efficient vaccine production platform, while TIbV induces innate immune memory that can protect against both homologous and heterologous diseases. Both strategies are generally compatible; however, they have not been explored in a transdisciplinary manner. Despite their strengths in vaccinology, each faces limitations that hinder widespread adoption and health benefits. This review revisits both strategies, discussing their fundamental knowledge alongside practical and experimental examples, ultimately highlighting their limitations and perspectives to pave the way for a unified approach to combat diseases. Future scenarios are envisioned and presented if research on plant-made trained immunity-based vaccines is adopted.