Evaluating adaptability of early cereal consumption during Holocene climate fluctuation: Integrated insights from macro-botanical remains, fossil pollen records and species distribution modeling in northern China

Agricultural production began with the selective adaptation of wild crops. While extensive archaeological evidence indicates that northern China was one of the earliest regions to develop systematic cereal cultivation, the dynamics of early subsistence adaptation remain insufficiently understood, primarily due to limited knowledge regarding the distribution, abundance, and variation of cereals. This study integrates multiple lines of evidence, including macro-botanical data recovered from archaeological sites, pollen taxa analysis from high-resolution sediment samples, and species distribution modeling (SDM), to evaluate the interaction between wild cereal resources and human choices during Holocene climate fluctuations. The findings suggest that climatic amelioration following the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) may facilitate the availability of wild broomcorn millet and rice in northern China. Their high abundance during the early Holocene may make these cereals dominant choices. In contrast, the climatic impact on wild foxtail millet was minimal, and its relatively lower availability likely constrained its early consumption. During the early Holocene, the composition of local vegetation may have influenced the proportion of cereals in daily diets. By the mid-Holocene, although climatic fluctuations diminished the availability of wild broomcorn millet and rice, the expansion of agriculture became the primary driver for the widespread dominance of foxtail millet. The assessment of early human adaptation reveals that the selective utilization of cereals was part of a complex ecological and economic dynamic, initially driven by disparities in plant resource availability resulting from Holocene climatic variations. Over time, however, population demands and agricultural development increasingly shaped this process.