{"title":"为老虎祈祷还是为老虎捕食?","authors":"Trevor Price","doi":"10.1111/cobi.14444","DOIUrl":null,"url":null,"abstract":"<p><b>Among Tigers: Fighting to Bring Back Asia's Big Cats</b>. Karanth, K. U. 2022. Chicago Review Press, Chicago, IL.xvi+240pp. US$30.00 (hardcover). ISBN 978-1-64160-654-7.</p><p>In 1967, at the age of 19, Ullas Karanth was living in southern India, where he “heard gunshots everywhere and saw forests laid waste.” Tiger numbers in India were at a low ebb. In the early 1970s, hunting was essentially banned, sacrosanct reserves were created, and some conservation biologists and forest officials worked to enforce the new laws. Recovery (“a miracle,” says Karanth) has resulted in an increase from ∼2000 to ∼3000 Indian tigers, which is thought to be about 60% of the world's wild population. This is all very well, but in comparison, just a century ago 1600 tigers were slaughtered annually in the subcontinent.</p><p>The 3000 Indian tigers today coexist with >1.4 billion people (a ratio of 1:470,000). The tale of how we got here and how the tiger has increased in numbers is a remarkable one, told here in gripping fashion. The book begins in 1988, when Karanth began rigorous fieldwork in the Western Ghats of India. By 1990, he was radio tracking 5 tigers and 3 leopards, and later he used camera traps to census tiger populations. Leading the way in both endeavors and spearheading subsequent conservation efforts, one wonders where the tiger would be without him. The book describes Karanth's adventures: how he caught and followed big cats, studied their diets, and surveyed their prey. It covers tiger life history, the challenges of conservation, and a recipe for a future in which India supports 10,000 tigers. Unlike in Africa, where safari parks are fenced, tigers, elephants, and other large mammals roam free in India. Sometimes they meet people and eat livestock. Rarely do they prey on people. But, just as the even more dangerous and more numerous elephants do, the tiger raises sentiments of both fear and pride.</p><p>Research comes with highs when it produces exciting discoveries and lows when things are not working out, but the oscillations in Karanth's study of big cats have been extreme. I cannot imagine how he felt to find a leopard he had been tracking for 2 years strung up dead in a poacher's noose or how he felt when bureaucrats prevented him from tracking his animals for more than 6 months, resulting in much time devoted to litigation, an inability to go to the field, and lost data. He had his work ransacked by a mob, fire set to his field station and vehicle, and 8 km<sup>2</sup> of prime habitat destroyed. The root cause of this destruction stemmed from strict limitations on reserve exploitation that had stopped locals from entering the forest or consuming wild animals, but the immediate cause was the death of a poacher.</p><p>Karanth kept going in the face of all these setbacks perhaps partly because of the “near mystical feeling of anticipating a tiger while soaking up myriad other sounds, smells and sensations” and the tremendous excitement of observing tigers up close. But the reader comes to understand that his main motivation was a thirst for knowledge. Several important results have come out from this research. For example, a tiger kills about 50 prey animals a year. Hence, it requires a prey base of 500, and ultimately it is the prey base that limits tiger numbers. He must also have got considerable satisfaction from knowing his study animals so well. In one case, a film team in the back of an open vehicle was charged to within a meter by a tigress in defense of her cubs; somehow Karanth knew she would not come all the way. In another case, a tiger that was a menace to humans was translocated to a remote area. Karanth was sure it would continue to attack people, and his predictions were born out.</p><p>In Karanth's study area, female tigers hold a territory of about 20 km<sup>2</sup>, whereas males have larger home ranges and compete for access to females. A female might reach reproductive age after 3–4 years and maintain her territory for 5–8 years, during which time she bears 10–15 cubs. If a female were to add a tiger a year to the population and none were to die until they themselves had lived a full life, I calculate that we would have more than >1.5 million individuals in less than 20 years. With all this potential, the critical issue becomes how tiger populations can be held steady without too many direct conflicts with people. “There is nothing gained by mourning the loss of an individual tiger, or in rejoicing the birth of every cub” notes Karanth. Yet, he continues, “This is exactly what many fans of tigers go around doing.” Such sentiment has led to the capture and translocation of cats rather than killing them, which has had dire consequences for the cat and often people.</p><p>With such a high potential for growth, many tigers must be dying each year to hold numbers approximately steady. Cubs are killed by males if their father is deposed. About 20% of adult tigers die every year. Karanth was able to ascertain causes of death and disappearance for 123 adults from 2006 to 2016: 40% died from starvation and fights (sometimes with gaur [<i>Bos gaurus</i>] but mostly with other tigers), 40% were killed by poaching (stimulated by a rise in demand for tiger parts from China), and the remainder were captured or killed by officials. Despite the mortality, it was surprising to me that there are not more human encounters and human deaths. Here, Karanth provides insight: through thousands of years of persecution, tigers have evolved to fear and avoid us.</p><p>What should one do about the relatively few tigers that are surplus, which are often old, displaced, or have left a park? Using camera traps rather than radio tracking, and yet again having to deal with being denied permits for an extended period, Karanth has been able to follow such individuals. One old, displaced, tigress killed 11 livestock and 2 people before herself being killed by a tranquilizer gun. Another tiger that was a danger to humans was trucked 300 km, much to the consternation of the villagers nearby, and shot after it killed a person. The bottom line, Karanth states, is that some tigers do need to be culled to save the species and its habitat. One obvious way to do this follows a North American and African model, which encourages professional culling, thereby raising funds for conservation. Karanth does not raise this idea at all. Indeed, it is quite clear that the correct route is to continue with limited governmental interventions when required, thereby jiving with an inborn respect for nature. Introducing trophy hunting might well be disastrous.</p><p>Karanth's views on how to conserve India's biodiversity make sense to me, although they are controversial. First, Karanth argues economics is the only way conservation can work. Land-use change in the past for subsistence agriculture and cash crops, for example, could now change to restoration of natural habitat to advance tourism. One of his goals is to convince and help private landowners make this route viable. This could lead to land grabs and funds not being distributed equitably and locally and limit land access to local people and such problems need to be resolved (Ghosh-Harihar et al., <span>2019</span>; Karanth & Gopal, <span>2005</span>; Karanth et al., <span>2013</span>). Further, Karanth argues that humans and nature cannot live side-by-side in the forest. Instead, we need reserves with as little human presence as possible, which requires human relocation (Ghosh-Harihar et al., <span>2019</span>; Harihar et al., <span>2014</span>). Relocation is controversial and has met with failure in the past, but better planned and better funded efforts have yielded mutual benefits to humans and biodiversity (e.g., Harihar et al., <span>2014</span>). Karanth notes, “When given the real chance to escape their forced coexistence with tigers to reach towards modernity, people grab it.” Over the past 20 years, he has not only talked the talk but also walked the walk, working with other dedicated conservationists to make impressive strides in human relocations. He has also taken on big business, contributing to the removal of a large mining operation from one reserve, and influenced government policy (e.g., in methods of tiger censusing).</p><p>This is an important book that describes the author's highs and lows in research and conservation. As an adventure story, it is a gripping page turner. As a recipe for how to do conservation in India, it is eloquent and forceful. Ultimately, despite field and bureaucratic difficulties, Karanth is full of optimism. I highly recommend this book to all.</p>","PeriodicalId":10689,"journal":{"name":"Conservation Biology","volume":"39 2","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":5.2000,"publicationDate":"2025-01-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/cobi.14444","citationCount":"0","resultStr":"{\"title\":\"Pray for the tiger or prey for the tiger?\",\"authors\":\"Trevor Price\",\"doi\":\"10.1111/cobi.14444\",\"DOIUrl\":null,\"url\":null,\"abstract\":\"<p><b>Among Tigers: Fighting to Bring Back Asia's Big Cats</b>. Karanth, K. U. 2022. Chicago Review Press, Chicago, IL.xvi+240pp. US$30.00 (hardcover). ISBN 978-1-64160-654-7.</p><p>In 1967, at the age of 19, Ullas Karanth was living in southern India, where he “heard gunshots everywhere and saw forests laid waste.” Tiger numbers in India were at a low ebb. In the early 1970s, hunting was essentially banned, sacrosanct reserves were created, and some conservation biologists and forest officials worked to enforce the new laws. Recovery (“a miracle,” says Karanth) has resulted in an increase from ∼2000 to ∼3000 Indian tigers, which is thought to be about 60% of the world's wild population. This is all very well, but in comparison, just a century ago 1600 tigers were slaughtered annually in the subcontinent.</p><p>The 3000 Indian tigers today coexist with >1.4 billion people (a ratio of 1:470,000). The tale of how we got here and how the tiger has increased in numbers is a remarkable one, told here in gripping fashion. The book begins in 1988, when Karanth began rigorous fieldwork in the Western Ghats of India. By 1990, he was radio tracking 5 tigers and 3 leopards, and later he used camera traps to census tiger populations. Leading the way in both endeavors and spearheading subsequent conservation efforts, one wonders where the tiger would be without him. The book describes Karanth's adventures: how he caught and followed big cats, studied their diets, and surveyed their prey. It covers tiger life history, the challenges of conservation, and a recipe for a future in which India supports 10,000 tigers. Unlike in Africa, where safari parks are fenced, tigers, elephants, and other large mammals roam free in India. Sometimes they meet people and eat livestock. Rarely do they prey on people. But, just as the even more dangerous and more numerous elephants do, the tiger raises sentiments of both fear and pride.</p><p>Research comes with highs when it produces exciting discoveries and lows when things are not working out, but the oscillations in Karanth's study of big cats have been extreme. I cannot imagine how he felt to find a leopard he had been tracking for 2 years strung up dead in a poacher's noose or how he felt when bureaucrats prevented him from tracking his animals for more than 6 months, resulting in much time devoted to litigation, an inability to go to the field, and lost data. He had his work ransacked by a mob, fire set to his field station and vehicle, and 8 km<sup>2</sup> of prime habitat destroyed. The root cause of this destruction stemmed from strict limitations on reserve exploitation that had stopped locals from entering the forest or consuming wild animals, but the immediate cause was the death of a poacher.</p><p>Karanth kept going in the face of all these setbacks perhaps partly because of the “near mystical feeling of anticipating a tiger while soaking up myriad other sounds, smells and sensations” and the tremendous excitement of observing tigers up close. But the reader comes to understand that his main motivation was a thirst for knowledge. Several important results have come out from this research. For example, a tiger kills about 50 prey animals a year. Hence, it requires a prey base of 500, and ultimately it is the prey base that limits tiger numbers. He must also have got considerable satisfaction from knowing his study animals so well. In one case, a film team in the back of an open vehicle was charged to within a meter by a tigress in defense of her cubs; somehow Karanth knew she would not come all the way. In another case, a tiger that was a menace to humans was translocated to a remote area. Karanth was sure it would continue to attack people, and his predictions were born out.</p><p>In Karanth's study area, female tigers hold a territory of about 20 km<sup>2</sup>, whereas males have larger home ranges and compete for access to females. A female might reach reproductive age after 3–4 years and maintain her territory for 5–8 years, during which time she bears 10–15 cubs. If a female were to add a tiger a year to the population and none were to die until they themselves had lived a full life, I calculate that we would have more than >1.5 million individuals in less than 20 years. With all this potential, the critical issue becomes how tiger populations can be held steady without too many direct conflicts with people. “There is nothing gained by mourning the loss of an individual tiger, or in rejoicing the birth of every cub” notes Karanth. Yet, he continues, “This is exactly what many fans of tigers go around doing.” Such sentiment has led to the capture and translocation of cats rather than killing them, which has had dire consequences for the cat and often people.</p><p>With such a high potential for growth, many tigers must be dying each year to hold numbers approximately steady. Cubs are killed by males if their father is deposed. About 20% of adult tigers die every year. Karanth was able to ascertain causes of death and disappearance for 123 adults from 2006 to 2016: 40% died from starvation and fights (sometimes with gaur [<i>Bos gaurus</i>] but mostly with other tigers), 40% were killed by poaching (stimulated by a rise in demand for tiger parts from China), and the remainder were captured or killed by officials. Despite the mortality, it was surprising to me that there are not more human encounters and human deaths. Here, Karanth provides insight: through thousands of years of persecution, tigers have evolved to fear and avoid us.</p><p>What should one do about the relatively few tigers that are surplus, which are often old, displaced, or have left a park? Using camera traps rather than radio tracking, and yet again having to deal with being denied permits for an extended period, Karanth has been able to follow such individuals. One old, displaced, tigress killed 11 livestock and 2 people before herself being killed by a tranquilizer gun. Another tiger that was a danger to humans was trucked 300 km, much to the consternation of the villagers nearby, and shot after it killed a person. The bottom line, Karanth states, is that some tigers do need to be culled to save the species and its habitat. One obvious way to do this follows a North American and African model, which encourages professional culling, thereby raising funds for conservation. Karanth does not raise this idea at all. Indeed, it is quite clear that the correct route is to continue with limited governmental interventions when required, thereby jiving with an inborn respect for nature. Introducing trophy hunting might well be disastrous.</p><p>Karanth's views on how to conserve India's biodiversity make sense to me, although they are controversial. First, Karanth argues economics is the only way conservation can work. Land-use change in the past for subsistence agriculture and cash crops, for example, could now change to restoration of natural habitat to advance tourism. One of his goals is to convince and help private landowners make this route viable. This could lead to land grabs and funds not being distributed equitably and locally and limit land access to local people and such problems need to be resolved (Ghosh-Harihar et al., <span>2019</span>; Karanth & Gopal, <span>2005</span>; Karanth et al., <span>2013</span>). Further, Karanth argues that humans and nature cannot live side-by-side in the forest. Instead, we need reserves with as little human presence as possible, which requires human relocation (Ghosh-Harihar et al., <span>2019</span>; Harihar et al., <span>2014</span>). Relocation is controversial and has met with failure in the past, but better planned and better funded efforts have yielded mutual benefits to humans and biodiversity (e.g., Harihar et al., <span>2014</span>). Karanth notes, “When given the real chance to escape their forced coexistence with tigers to reach towards modernity, people grab it.” Over the past 20 years, he has not only talked the talk but also walked the walk, working with other dedicated conservationists to make impressive strides in human relocations. He has also taken on big business, contributing to the removal of a large mining operation from one reserve, and influenced government policy (e.g., in methods of tiger censusing).</p><p>This is an important book that describes the author's highs and lows in research and conservation. As an adventure story, it is a gripping page turner. As a recipe for how to do conservation in India, it is eloquent and forceful. Ultimately, despite field and bureaucratic difficulties, Karanth is full of optimism. 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引用次数: 0
摘要
老虎之间:为亚洲猫科动物的回归而战。Karanth,英国2022。芝加哥评论出版社,芝加哥,伊利诺伊州,xvi+240页。30.00美元(精装)。ISBN 978-1-64160-654-7。1967年,19岁的乌拉斯·卡兰思(Ullas Karanth)住在印度南部,在那里他“到处都能听到枪声,看到森林被夷为平地”。印度的老虎数量处于低谷。在20世纪70年代早期,狩猎基本上被禁止,建立了神圣不可侵犯的保护区,一些保护生物学家和森林官员努力执行新的法律。恢复(“一个奇迹,”Karanth说)导致印度老虎从2000只增加到3000只,这被认为约占世界野生种群的60%。这一切都很好,但相比之下,就在一个世纪前,印度次大陆每年有1600只老虎被屠杀。今天,3000只印度老虎与14亿人口共存(比例为1:47万)。我们如何来到这里,老虎的数量如何增加,这是一个引人注目的故事,在这里以扣人心弦的方式讲述。这本书开始于1988年,当时Karanth开始在印度的西高止山脉进行严格的田野调查。到1990年,他用无线电追踪了5只老虎和3只豹子,后来他用相机陷阱来统计老虎的数量。他在这两方面的努力和随后的保护工作中都处于领先地位,人们想知道如果没有他,老虎会在哪里。这本书描述了卡兰斯的冒险经历:他如何捕捉和跟踪大型猫科动物,研究它们的饮食,调查它们的猎物。它涵盖了老虎的生活史,保护面临的挑战,以及印度未来养活10000只老虎的秘诀。与非洲的野生动物园被围起来不同,老虎、大象和其他大型哺乳动物在印度自由漫步。有时他们会遇到人,吃牲畜。它们很少捕食人类。但是,就像更危险、数量更多的大象一样,老虎让人既害怕又自豪。当研究产生令人兴奋的发现时,就会有高潮,当事情不顺利时,就会有低谷,但卡拉思对大型猫科动物的研究中的波动是极端的。我无法想象,当他发现自己追踪了2年的豹子被绑在偷猎者的套索中死去时,他是什么感受;当官僚们阻止他追踪自己的动物超过6个月,导致他花了很多时间在诉讼上、无法去实地调查、数据丢失时,他是什么感受。他的工作被一群暴徒洗劫一空,他的野外工作站和车辆被纵火,8平方公里的主要栖息地被毁。这种破坏的根本原因是对保护区开发的严格限制,禁止当地人进入森林或食用野生动物,但直接原因是偷猎者的死亡。尽管遇到了种种挫折,卡兰斯还是坚持了下来,部分原因可能是“在吸收了无数其他声音、气味和感觉的同时,又有一种近乎神秘的预感”,以及近距离观察老虎的巨大兴奋。但是读者渐渐明白,他的主要动机是对知识的渴望。这项研究得出了几个重要的结果。例如,一只老虎每年捕杀大约50只猎物。因此,它需要500个猎物基数,最终是猎物基数限制了老虎的数量。他对自己研究的动物如此了解,一定也得到了相当大的满足。在一个案例中,一个摄制组在一辆敞开式汽车的后面,被一只保护幼崽的母老虎冲到一米以内;不知怎的,卡兰斯知道她不会一路来的。在另一个案例中,一只对人类构成威胁的老虎被转移到一个偏远地区。卡兰斯确信它会继续攻击人类,他的预言也应验了。在Karanth的研究区域,雌虎拥有大约20平方公里的领地,而雄虎拥有更大的活动范围,并为获得雌虎而竞争。雌性可能在3-4年后达到生育年龄,并维持她的领地5-8年,在此期间她会生育10-15只幼崽。如果一只雌性老虎每年给老虎的数量增加一只,并且没有一只老虎在它们自己活到完整的生命之前死亡,我估计在不到20年的时间里,我们将有超过150万只老虎。有了这些潜力,关键的问题是如何在不与人类发生太多直接冲突的情况下保持老虎数量的稳定。“为失去一只老虎而哀悼,或者为每只幼崽的诞生而欢呼,都没有任何好处,”卡兰斯写道。然而,他继续说道:“这正是许多老虎迷所做的事情。”这种情绪导致了猫的捕获和转移,而不是杀死它们,这给猫和人带来了可怕的后果。由于有如此高的增长潜力,每年必须有许多老虎死亡,以保持数量大致稳定。如果幼崽的父亲被废黜,幼崽就会被雄崽杀死。每年大约有20%的成年老虎死亡。 从2006年到2016年,Karanth确定了123只成年老虎的死亡和失踪原因:40%死于饥饿和打斗(有时是与野牛搏斗,但大多数是与其他老虎搏斗),40%死于偷猎(由于中国对老虎器官需求的增加),其余的被官员捕获或杀害。尽管死亡率很高,但令我惊讶的是,没有更多的人类遭遇和死亡。在这里,卡兰思提供了见解:经过数千年的迫害,老虎已经进化到害怕和避开我们。对于相对较少的过剩老虎,通常是年老的、流离失所的或已经离开公园的,我们应该做些什么呢?使用相机陷阱而不是无线电跟踪,再一次不得不处理长时间被拒绝许可的问题,Karanth已经能够跟踪这些人。一只流离失所的老母老虎杀死了11头牲畜和2个人,然后被麻醉枪打死。另一只对人类构成威胁的老虎被卡车运到300公里外,附近的村民大为震惊,并在杀死一个人后被射杀。卡兰思说,最重要的是,为了拯救这个物种和它的栖息地,一些老虎确实需要被捕杀。一个显而易见的做法是遵循北美和非洲的模式,鼓励专业的扑杀,从而为保护筹集资金。Karanth根本没有提出这个想法。事实上,很明显,正确的途径是在必要时继续进行有限的政府干预,从而与生俱来地尊重自然。引入战利品狩猎很可能是灾难性的。Karanth关于如何保护印度生物多样性的观点对我来说是有意义的,尽管这些观点存在争议。首先,Karanth认为经济是保护环境的唯一途径。例如,过去用于自给农业和经济作物的土地利用变化,现在可以改为恢复自然栖息地以促进旅游业。他的目标之一是说服并帮助私人土地所有者使这条路线可行。这可能导致土地掠夺和资金不能在当地公平分配,并限制当地人获得土地,这些问题需要解决(Ghosh-Harihar等人,2019;Karanth,Gopal, 2005;Karanth et al., 2013)。此外,Karanth认为人类和自然不能在森林中共存。相反,我们需要尽可能少的人类存在的保护区,这需要人类搬迁(Ghosh-Harihar等人,2019;Harihar et al., 2014)。搬迁是有争议的,并且在过去遇到了失败,但更好的规划和更好的资金投入已经为人类和生物多样性带来了互惠互利(例如,Harihar等人,2014)。Karanth指出:“当有真正的机会逃离与老虎的被迫共存,走向现代化时,人们会抓住这个机会。”在过去的20年里,他不仅说到做到,而且还付诸行动,与其他热心的自然资源保护主义者合作,在人类重新安置方面取得了令人印象深刻的进展。他还接手了一些大生意,帮助从一个保护区撤除了一个大型采矿作业,并影响了政府的政策(例如,在老虎普查方法上)。这是一本重要的书,描述了作者在研究和保护方面的起起落落。作为一个冒险故事,这是一本扣人心弦的书。作为如何在印度进行环境保护的良方,它是雄辩而有力的。最终,尽管存在实地和官僚主义方面的困难,卡兰思还是充满了乐观。我向所有人强烈推荐这本书。
Among Tigers: Fighting to Bring Back Asia's Big Cats. Karanth, K. U. 2022. Chicago Review Press, Chicago, IL.xvi+240pp. US$30.00 (hardcover). ISBN 978-1-64160-654-7.
In 1967, at the age of 19, Ullas Karanth was living in southern India, where he “heard gunshots everywhere and saw forests laid waste.” Tiger numbers in India were at a low ebb. In the early 1970s, hunting was essentially banned, sacrosanct reserves were created, and some conservation biologists and forest officials worked to enforce the new laws. Recovery (“a miracle,” says Karanth) has resulted in an increase from ∼2000 to ∼3000 Indian tigers, which is thought to be about 60% of the world's wild population. This is all very well, but in comparison, just a century ago 1600 tigers were slaughtered annually in the subcontinent.
The 3000 Indian tigers today coexist with >1.4 billion people (a ratio of 1:470,000). The tale of how we got here and how the tiger has increased in numbers is a remarkable one, told here in gripping fashion. The book begins in 1988, when Karanth began rigorous fieldwork in the Western Ghats of India. By 1990, he was radio tracking 5 tigers and 3 leopards, and later he used camera traps to census tiger populations. Leading the way in both endeavors and spearheading subsequent conservation efforts, one wonders where the tiger would be without him. The book describes Karanth's adventures: how he caught and followed big cats, studied their diets, and surveyed their prey. It covers tiger life history, the challenges of conservation, and a recipe for a future in which India supports 10,000 tigers. Unlike in Africa, where safari parks are fenced, tigers, elephants, and other large mammals roam free in India. Sometimes they meet people and eat livestock. Rarely do they prey on people. But, just as the even more dangerous and more numerous elephants do, the tiger raises sentiments of both fear and pride.
Research comes with highs when it produces exciting discoveries and lows when things are not working out, but the oscillations in Karanth's study of big cats have been extreme. I cannot imagine how he felt to find a leopard he had been tracking for 2 years strung up dead in a poacher's noose or how he felt when bureaucrats prevented him from tracking his animals for more than 6 months, resulting in much time devoted to litigation, an inability to go to the field, and lost data. He had his work ransacked by a mob, fire set to his field station and vehicle, and 8 km2 of prime habitat destroyed. The root cause of this destruction stemmed from strict limitations on reserve exploitation that had stopped locals from entering the forest or consuming wild animals, but the immediate cause was the death of a poacher.
Karanth kept going in the face of all these setbacks perhaps partly because of the “near mystical feeling of anticipating a tiger while soaking up myriad other sounds, smells and sensations” and the tremendous excitement of observing tigers up close. But the reader comes to understand that his main motivation was a thirst for knowledge. Several important results have come out from this research. For example, a tiger kills about 50 prey animals a year. Hence, it requires a prey base of 500, and ultimately it is the prey base that limits tiger numbers. He must also have got considerable satisfaction from knowing his study animals so well. In one case, a film team in the back of an open vehicle was charged to within a meter by a tigress in defense of her cubs; somehow Karanth knew she would not come all the way. In another case, a tiger that was a menace to humans was translocated to a remote area. Karanth was sure it would continue to attack people, and his predictions were born out.
In Karanth's study area, female tigers hold a territory of about 20 km2, whereas males have larger home ranges and compete for access to females. A female might reach reproductive age after 3–4 years and maintain her territory for 5–8 years, during which time she bears 10–15 cubs. If a female were to add a tiger a year to the population and none were to die until they themselves had lived a full life, I calculate that we would have more than >1.5 million individuals in less than 20 years. With all this potential, the critical issue becomes how tiger populations can be held steady without too many direct conflicts with people. “There is nothing gained by mourning the loss of an individual tiger, or in rejoicing the birth of every cub” notes Karanth. Yet, he continues, “This is exactly what many fans of tigers go around doing.” Such sentiment has led to the capture and translocation of cats rather than killing them, which has had dire consequences for the cat and often people.
With such a high potential for growth, many tigers must be dying each year to hold numbers approximately steady. Cubs are killed by males if their father is deposed. About 20% of adult tigers die every year. Karanth was able to ascertain causes of death and disappearance for 123 adults from 2006 to 2016: 40% died from starvation and fights (sometimes with gaur [Bos gaurus] but mostly with other tigers), 40% were killed by poaching (stimulated by a rise in demand for tiger parts from China), and the remainder were captured or killed by officials. Despite the mortality, it was surprising to me that there are not more human encounters and human deaths. Here, Karanth provides insight: through thousands of years of persecution, tigers have evolved to fear and avoid us.
What should one do about the relatively few tigers that are surplus, which are often old, displaced, or have left a park? Using camera traps rather than radio tracking, and yet again having to deal with being denied permits for an extended period, Karanth has been able to follow such individuals. One old, displaced, tigress killed 11 livestock and 2 people before herself being killed by a tranquilizer gun. Another tiger that was a danger to humans was trucked 300 km, much to the consternation of the villagers nearby, and shot after it killed a person. The bottom line, Karanth states, is that some tigers do need to be culled to save the species and its habitat. One obvious way to do this follows a North American and African model, which encourages professional culling, thereby raising funds for conservation. Karanth does not raise this idea at all. Indeed, it is quite clear that the correct route is to continue with limited governmental interventions when required, thereby jiving with an inborn respect for nature. Introducing trophy hunting might well be disastrous.
Karanth's views on how to conserve India's biodiversity make sense to me, although they are controversial. First, Karanth argues economics is the only way conservation can work. Land-use change in the past for subsistence agriculture and cash crops, for example, could now change to restoration of natural habitat to advance tourism. One of his goals is to convince and help private landowners make this route viable. This could lead to land grabs and funds not being distributed equitably and locally and limit land access to local people and such problems need to be resolved (Ghosh-Harihar et al., 2019; Karanth & Gopal, 2005; Karanth et al., 2013). Further, Karanth argues that humans and nature cannot live side-by-side in the forest. Instead, we need reserves with as little human presence as possible, which requires human relocation (Ghosh-Harihar et al., 2019; Harihar et al., 2014). Relocation is controversial and has met with failure in the past, but better planned and better funded efforts have yielded mutual benefits to humans and biodiversity (e.g., Harihar et al., 2014). Karanth notes, “When given the real chance to escape their forced coexistence with tigers to reach towards modernity, people grab it.” Over the past 20 years, he has not only talked the talk but also walked the walk, working with other dedicated conservationists to make impressive strides in human relocations. He has also taken on big business, contributing to the removal of a large mining operation from one reserve, and influenced government policy (e.g., in methods of tiger censusing).
This is an important book that describes the author's highs and lows in research and conservation. As an adventure story, it is a gripping page turner. As a recipe for how to do conservation in India, it is eloquent and forceful. Ultimately, despite field and bureaucratic difficulties, Karanth is full of optimism. I highly recommend this book to all.
期刊介绍:
Conservation Biology welcomes submissions that address the science and practice of conserving Earth's biological diversity. We encourage submissions that emphasize issues germane to any of Earth''s ecosystems or geographic regions and that apply diverse approaches to analyses and problem solving. Nevertheless, manuscripts with relevance to conservation that transcend the particular ecosystem, species, or situation described will be prioritized for publication.