Global Perspective of Insecticide Resistance in Bed Bugs and Management Options

The global resurgence of bed bugs (Cimex lectularius L. and Cimex hemipterus [F.]) over the past 25 years has presented significant challenges to the pest management industry, with insecticide resistance as a leading cause of control failures. This review provides a synthesis of bed bug insecticide resistance research from 2018 to the present, highlighting insecticide resistance profiles, resistance mechanisms, and management strategies. Resistance to pyrethroids, neonicotinoids, organophosphates, carbamates, and other insecticides is widespread, with documented cases of metabolic resistance (cytochrome P450s, esterases, glutathione S-transferase and ABC transporters), target site insensitivity (point mutations in voltage-gated sodium channel genes [kdr], paralogous acetylcholinesterase gene (p-Ace), and GABA receptor gene [rdl]), penetration resistance (cuticular thickening), and symbiont-mediated resistance. This paper also reviews the effective management options against insecticide-resistant bed bugs, including insecticide mixtures and synergists, entomopathogenic fungi (Beauveria bassiana), and physical methods such as heat treatment, desiccant dust, and fumigation. Additionally, novel approaches, such as RNA interference and bed bug baits, provide new directions but require further research. Lastly, socio-economic disparities affect bed bug management, especially in lower-income communities.