Residential satisfaction in a country that prioritises happiness: Empirical evidences from affordable housing in Bhutan

Bhutan, which values happiness, has been providing affordable housing to low-to-middle income groups for over two decades. This study examined the residential satisfaction (RS) using a Gross National Happiness-based model in Bhutan's two largest affordable housing neighbourhoods: the Changjiji Housing Colony (CHC) in Thimphu and the Special Housing Colony (SHC) in Phuentsholing. A total of 481 households were selected using stratified random sampling followed by convenience sampling. The housing variables are grouped into five components using the exploratory factor analysis (EFA) - housing characteristics (HC), neighbourhood resilience (NR), social environment (SE), public facilities (PF) and management services (MS). The findings indicated that the residents of the Changjiji Housing Colony (CHC) and Special Housing Colony (SHC) were moderately satisfied with the residential environment with high appraisal for housing characteristics, management services and public facilities. These three factors were also the main predictors of residential satisfaction (RS) obtained through the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). CHC residents exhibited slightly higher residential satisfaction compared to those in the SHC. The CHC residents placed more importance on housing characteristics and social environment, whereas SHC residents valued public facilities, neighbourhood resilience, and management services. Overall, the socioeconomic characteristics are not statistically significant determinants of resident satisfaction (RS) except for household head, education and the length of residence. Most notably, the result also showed a significant influence of residential satisfaction (RS) on residents' happiness derived through the nine domains of Gross National Happiness (GNH). The findings of the study showed that housing and happiness is intrinsically linked through residential satisfaction and as a result this study can serve as an important document to inform housing policies aiming to achieve ‘Happiness for All’.