Key reproductive insights of captive female asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in Nepal

Asian elephants are classified as endangered by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature. Its population has declined by an estimated 50 percent over the past 75 years and captivity is one of the several reasons. This study aimed to assess key reproductive parameters of captive Asian elephants in Nepal, including fertility status, age at first calving, inter-calving interval, calving seasonality, calf sex ratio, and associated reproductive issues. Data were collected between May and October 2024 from 96 captive female elephants in five protected areas using standardized questionnaire surveys and retrospective records from 1985 to 2024. Among these, only 76 elephants were found matured (10–82 years of age)and became part of this study.A total of 50 % (38/76) elephants had a history of conception and calving, producing 100 calves. The earliest calving age was 11 years, with a maximum of seven parities observed in a single elephant, and one case of twin births. The average age at first calving was 5447 ± 1344 days (14 years 11 months 7 days), while the average inter-calving interval was 1543 ± 771 days (4 years 2 months 23 days). The male-to-female calf ratio was 1.5, and calf survivability was 85 %. Calving was the highest in spring(31 %), followed by autumn (26 %), winter (23 %) and summer (20 %). Dystocia, abortions and neonatal mortality were the major reproductive complications.These findings provide critical insights into the reproductive dynamics of captive Asian elephants, offering valuable information for improving their management and addressing reproductive challenges to support conservation efforts.