Both walls and embankments: Flood control construction strategies and characteristics of Yellow River floodplain cities in the Ming Dynasty

The paper has investigated a total of 32 cities from 27 prefectures, states, and counties in Henan, Shandong, Southern Zhili, and Northern Zhili that built embankments due to the Yellow River flooding in the Ming Dynasty. It highlights the river's impact as the main driver for embankment construction, while also noting political influences on river regulation efforts. The construction of city embankments exhibits a consistent spatial and temporal distribution pattern that aligns with occurrences of river floods. The embankments are relatively low, wide and have a long slope. The materials for embankments were rammed earth generally. Various plants are planted to protect the embankments. City embankment is an important part of the flood control system in the Yellow River Floodplain, and part of urban forms. The scale is correlated positively based on the city level. The selection of sites for some cities with embankments is determined by flood avoidance strategies, consequently influencing the development pattern. The circular shape of city embankments is often influenced by both symbolic and practical considerations. The presence of large-scale water bodies surrounding cities reflects a combination of environmental changes and urban development.