Artificial intelligence in surgery: what is needed for ongoing innovation

Artificial intelligence (AI) is rapidly transforming various fields, including surgery. AI's ability to process large datasets and deliver real-time insights has the potential to enhance diagnostic accuracy, risk prediction, and intraoperative decision-making. However, challenges such as algorithmic bias, data privacy, and the need for surgeon AI literacy hinder broader implementation. While AI holds significant potential to revolutionize surgical practice, its safe and effective integration requires improved AI literacy among surgeons and more effective regulatory frameworks. Addressing these challenges will be critical to ensuring that AI enhances, rather than disrupts, patient care. This paper reviews the integration of AI into surgery, examining its current applications, challenges, and future directions.